Conclusion
The international recognition of FGM/C as a form of gender-based violence is rooted in three major milestones. The first is General Recommendation No. 14 on female circumcision (1990), which constituted the initial attempt by the CEDAW Committee to call for ‘appropriate and effective measures with a view to eradicating the practice of female circumcision’. In 1992, the same committee defined FGM/C as violence against women by including the practice in its General Recommendation No. 19. Finally, FGM/C and other traditional harmful practices against women were defined by the UN General Assembly as forms of violence against women occurring in the family in its Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women (1993, Article 2).
The creation of international resolutions addressing FGM/C has been influenced by a complex interplay of social, political, and human rights factors. These factors reflect a growing global awareness among many international agencies of the harmful impact of FGM/C and a collective commitment to addressing it. The evolution of a human rights perspective has been instrumental in framing FGM/C as a violation of the rights of women and girls. Activists and organisations highlighted the infringement of basic human rights, leading to increased international attention. Public opinion, shaped by global activism, has also influenced the political will to address FGM/C.
While some progress has been made, ongoing efforts are necessary to ensure the effective implementation of resolutions and the ultimate elimination of FGM/C. Despite some positive developments, the effectiveness of efforts to eliminate FGM/C is context-dependent and multifaceted. The persistence of challenges underscores the need for sustained efforts, increased collaboration, and ongoing evaluation to ensure the impact of international resolutions on FGM/C is maximised.
Aligning national laws with international resolutions on FGM/C is still a work in progress, and achieving full compliance remains a complex challenge. Recent statistics have shown that, overall, the prevalence of FGM/C has reduced over the last thirty years. In some countries, including Sierra Leone, Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Liberia, prevalence rates have decreased markedly, whereas in others, including Somalia, Mali, and Gambia, prevalence has remained persistently high (UNICEF 2024). However, despite the decrease in prevalence, the total number of women undergoing FGM/C has increased due to substantial population increases in practising countries. Overcoming cultural sensitivities, strengthening enforcement mechanisms, increasing community awareness, and addressing institutional weaknesses are essential steps toward the legal enforcement of FGM/C resolutions at the national level, and the abandonment of FGM/C at the community level.
In conclusion, addressing the challenges in monitoring changes in the prevalence and practice of FGM/C, and evaluating the effectiveness of interventions in bringing about the aims of the international resolutions on FGM/C, requires a multifaceted approach. Efforts should focus on improving cultural sensitivity in data collection, addressing resource constraints, working with indicators such as those compiled by UNFPA and UNICEF in 2020,
1 https://www.unfpa.org/publications/compendium-indicators-female-genital-mutilation [Accessed 15 July 2025]. and promoting sustained, community-driven data collection initiatives.
Today, the hard-won gains, in awareness-raising and in some reduction in the prevalence of FGM/C in some countries, seem to be at risk given the polarisation of the sexual and reproductive rights agenda, especially due to a backlash against women’s rights and choices. Although there is progressive activism in favour of social justice and equality, we are at a critical inflection point to preserve progress made so far and achieve the vision of the ICPD agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).