Index
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Addison, Christopher,
171,
173agricultural fertilizer, waste repurposed as,
31–32,
42air: exposure to fresh,
1,
4,
84,
88,
94,
135; pollution,
1,
5,
27,
30,
31,
32,
102,
108,
133; ventilation, inadequate,
4,
12,
29,
54,
68,
70,
102,
108,
133; ventilation, reforms efforts,
31,
68,
69army recruiting. See military service
Artisans’ Dwellings Act (1875),
41Ashby, H.T.,
Infant Mortality,
165Atwater, Wilbur Olin,
130n76
back-to-back housing, 12, 29, 31, 34–35
bacterial and parasitic pathogens,
62–64
Birmingham: health visitors in,
93–96,
151; industrial growth of,
38–40; Maternity and Child Welfare Act, impact of,
167–68; mortality rates in, general population,
43,
44; mortality rates in, infant,
9–10,
11,
43–44,
150–51,
153,
176; mortality rates in, summer diarrhea,
56–57,
68,
95; overcrowding in,
36; population density of,
42; sanitary reform in, combating diarrheal mortality,
67–69; sanitary reform in, early efforts,
41–42,
47; school health programs in,
123,
127,
128–29,
136,
141–44,
153; unsanitary conditions in,
40–41; welfare centers in,
151–52
Birmingham Improvement Act (1852),
40Birmingham Schools Dinner Society,
123Birmingham Women’s Settlement,
131Board of Education,
106,
117,
126–27,
170,
171,
172,
173.
See also School Medical Officers; School Medical Service
bottle-feeding,
54,
76–77,
78,
79–81.
See also infant feeding practices
Boyd, J.A.,
Supply Handbook for the Army Service Corps,
122breastfeeding,
54,
71,
72,
76–77,
78,
80,
84,
92,
95,
109.
See also infant feeding practices
British Medical Association,
106,
124Canteen Committees, 128–29
Cantlie, James,
2; “Degeneration Amongst Londoners,”
1–2,
102;
Physical Efficiency,
102; public health crisis concerns,
1–4,
10,
12,
47,
98,
102–5
Chamberlain, Joseph,
41,
42,
47children’s health, at center of national fitness rhetoric,
105–11,
113,
156,
161–62,
165–66.
See also infant feeding practices; infant mortality; infectious diseases; school meals; School Medical Officers; School Medical Service; school physical education
class divisions: and food access,
104n31; and health visiting dynamics,
86,
95; and living conditions,
27–30,
34–36,
39; and medical treatment access,
144climate, as factor in diarrheal mortality,
53,
55–61,
64coal smoke pollution,
5n17,
30,
32cow’s milk: biochemistry of,
77–78; contamination concerns,
55,
71,
72,
76,
79–80,
84death rates. See infant mortality; mortality rates
diarrhea. See summer diarrhea
diet and nutrition: careful storage of foodstuffs,
64,
68,
72,
79,
84; childhood malnutrition concerns,
120–23,
132; and degeneration rhetoric,
3–4,
77; foodstuffs suitable/unsuitable for children,
92,
103; military regulations on,
122,
130; reform efforts,
103–4; scientific standards for,
129–30; wartime rations,
163.
See also infant feeding practices; school meals
disease. See infectious diseases
domestic hygiene. See health visitors; housing conditions
Duncan, William,
36–37,
46ear, nose, and throat conditions, 141, 143
Education (Administrative Provisions) Act (1907),
139–40,
141Education (Provision of Meals) Act (1906),
126–27
Education (Provision of Meals) Act (1914),
164Elementary Education (Defective and Epileptic Children) Act (1899),
139ethnicity, and social inequalities,
27,
34 Eugenics Education Society,
166Ewart, James Cossar, “The Saving of Child Life,”
165–66
exercise. See physical fitness; school physical education
Fabian Society, 100–101
factories, pollution from,
27,
31,
32feeding practices. See infant feeding practices
Female Sanitary Staff, Liverpool,
154First World War (1914–18): continued public health services during,
150–55; impact on state intervention in maternal and child welfare,
163–69; military medical examinations,
156–62
Fitz Roy, Almeric W.,
106food. See diet and nutrition; infant feeding practices
Food and Betterment Association,
123Fothergill, J. Milner,
3–4,
121Galloway, James, 157, 158
Gardiner, Blanche,
96,
151General Board of Health,
16–18.
See also Medical Officers of Health
Gorst, John,
105–6,
136–37;
The Children of the Nation,
106,
137government intervention. See municipal intervention; state intervention
Halford, Jeanette, 166
Handsworth School Clinic,
141–42
health visitors: in Birmingham,
93–96,
151; charity origins,
85–86; duties of,
83–85,
91,
92; funding for,
86,
88n76; impact on infant mortality,
88,
93,
96–97,
174–75; and influenza pandemic,
176n33; in Liverpool,
92–93,
154; in Manchester,
86,
88–91,
110,
154–55; Ministry of Health training for,
172; professionalization of,
86–87,
90–91,
93,
96; rising number of,
91,
93,
150,
151,
154; state policies on,
96,
164–65,
167,
168; suspicion toward,
86,
87,
90Hewitt, Charles Gordon,
House Flies and How They Spread Disease,
63–64
Hill, Alfred: appointment as Medical Officer,
41; ecological concerns,
60–61; health visitor supervision,
93,
94–95; household sanitation concerns,
67–69,
93,
94–95; mentioned,
10; mortality rate reports,
43–44,
56,
57,
68Hope, E.W.: health visitor supervision,
92–93; household sanitation concerns,
71–72; infant feeding concerns,
54,
72; mentioned,
10; mortality rate reports,
45,
58,
154 housing conditions: as factor in diarrheal mortality,
54,
64,
67–72; inadequate,
27–30,
34–36,
40–41; reform efforts,
30,
31,
36,
37,
40,
41–42,
108.
See also health visitors; sanitary inspections
hygiene: washing households,
88,
94; washing infants,
83,
89,
92.
See also diet and nutrition; health visitors; housing conditions; physical fitness; sanitary reforms; waste removal
illness. See infectious diseases
infant feeding practices: and biochemistry of milk,
77–78; breastfeeding, promotion of,
54,
71,
72,
76–77,
78,
80,
84,
92,
95,
109; contamination concerns,
55,
61–62,
64,
71,
72,
76,
79–80,
84,
92,
109; education on, at welfare centers,
81–82; education on, from health visitors,
83–84,
92; financial concerns,
76,
84,
109–10; milk depots,
80–81,
92.
See also diet and nutrition
infant mortality: awareness campaigns,
166; decline in,
81,
150,
153–55,
174,
176; leading causes of,
12–13,
32,
51; statistics, general,
6,
7,
9n39,
10,
11,
43–46,
150–51,
153–55,
176; statistics, summer diarrhea,
51,
52,
56–61,
68,
70,
91,
95Infectious Disease (Notification) Extension Act (1899),
47–48
infectious diseases: common types,
50,
141; germ theory,
12,
13,
20,
47; reporting,
47–48,
50,
116; school outbreaks,
115–19,
143; and urban penalty,
5–6.
See also specific diseases/illnessesInfectious Diseases (Notification) Act (1889),
47–48,
50influenza pandemic (1918–20),
175,
176n33
Inter-departmental Committee on Medical Inspection and Feeding of Children,
126Inter-departmental Committee on Physical Deterioration,
106–11,
113,
125interwar public health efforts,
174–76
Jackson, Cyril, 126
Kanthack, Emilia, 83–84, 86, 96
Ladies’ Sanitary Reform Association (later Ladies’ Public Health Society), 85–86, 89, 90, 91, 110
Lads’ Drill Association,
136Liverpool: health visitors in,
92–93,
154; industrial growth of,
33,
34; mortality rates in, general population,
42–44, mortality rates in, infant,
9–11,
44–45,
153–54,
176; mortality rates in, summer diarrhea,
58–60, overcrowding in,
35–36; population density of,
42; sanitary reform in, combating diarrheal mortality,
71–72; sanitary reform in, early efforts,
36–37,
46; school health programs in,
123; unsanitary conditions in,
33–36
Liverpool Health of Towns Association,
36Liverpool Sanitary Amendment Act (1864),
37living conditions. See housing conditions
local government. See municipal intervention
Local Government Act (1871),
18London: overcrowding in,
36; population density of,
42; railway connection with Birmingham,
39–40
London School Dinner Association,
123Mackenzie, W.L., 110, 119, 133–34
Manchester: health visitors in,
86,
88–91,
110,
154–55; industrial growth of,
26–27; Maternity and Child Welfare Act, impact of,
168; mortality rates in, general population,
43–44; mortality rates in, infant,
9–11,
45–46,
176; mortality rates in, summer diarrhea,
60,
61,
70,
91; overcrowding in,
28–29,
36; population density of,
42; sanitary reform in, combating diarrheal mortality,
70–71; sanitary reform in, early efforts,
31–32; sanitary reform in, praised as model,
108–9,
110; school health programs in,
123–24,
127–28,
129,
131,
138–39,
144–45; unsanitary conditions in,
27–31
Manchester and Salford Sanitary Association,
85,
137–38,
168Manchester Branch of the National Committee for the Prevention of Destitution,
144–45
Manchester Council on Social Services,
174Manchester Waterworks and Improvement Act (1867),
31maternal neglect/ignorance discourse,
32,
45,
46,
54,
77,
79,
89,
90,
103,
151,
161Maternity and Child Welfare Act (1918),
167–69,
173Meath, Reginald Brabazon,
12th Earl of,
134Medical Board, Ministry of National Service,
157–62
medical examinations: military service,
99–100,
156–62, school inspections,
137–41,
143,
144Medical Officers of Health: concerns of, overview,
10–11; data collection, on summer diarrhea,
55–61,
95; data collection, process of,
17,
48; dietary reform,
104; infant feeding concerns,
54,
55,
61–62,
64,
71,
72,
76,
78–82,
89; in interwar period,
175; midwifery supervision,
167; and Ministry of Health,
170–71; partnership with School Medical Officers,
115,
117–19,
132,
146; reporting infectious diseases, regulations on,
47–48,
50; reporting infectious diseases, schools,
115–18; reporting infectious diseases, summer diarrhea,
53–54; responsibilities of, overview,
12,
16,
17,
18–19; sanitary reform, combating diarrheal mortality,
67–72; sanitary reform, early efforts,
31–32,
36–37,
41–43,
46–47; sanitary reform, health visitor supervision,
86–96; wartime service,
150–55.
See also health visitors
military service: and childhood nutrition,
121–22,
130; and childhood physical education,
134,
135–37; medical examinations,
99–100,
156–62
milk: biochemistry of,
77–78; breastfeeding,
54,
71,
72,
76–77,
78,
80,
84,
92,
95,
109; condensed,
63,
64,
80; contamination of,
55,
64,
68,
71,
72,
76,
79–80,
84,
92,
109Ministry of Health,
170–75
Ministry of Munitions,
163Ministry of National Service Medical Board,
157–62
mortality rates, general population,
42–44.
See also infant mortality
mothers: education for, at welfare centers,
81–82,
151; education for, from health visitors,
83–86,
88–89,
91,
92–96; maternal neglect/ignorance discourse,
32,
45,
46,
54,
77,
79,
89,
90,
103,
151,
161; welfare centers for,
81–82,
150,
151–52,
154,
155,
166,
168.
See also infant feeding practices
municipal intervention: housing condition reform efforts,
30,
31,
36,
37,
40,
41–42,
108; school meals,
125–26; waste removal reform efforts,
30,
31–32,
42,
67–69,
70–71.
See also health visitors; Medical Officers of Health; School Medical Officers; state intervention
Nash, J.T.C., 76
National Committee for the Prevention of Destitution, Manchester Branch,
144–45
National Insurance Commission,
170National League for Physical Education,
131–32
National Union of Teachers,
142 Newman, George: infant mortality concerns,
148,
174; leadership positions,
79,
172,
173; milk supply concerns,
79–80n31; national fitness concerns,
149,
156–57,
161; school health concerns,
113,
124,
127,
140–41,
146,
164Niven, James: eugenics involvement,
101n14; health visitor supervision,
89,
90,
154; household sanitation concerns,
61,
64–66,
70–71,
108,
168; infant feeding concerns,
61–62,
71,
80,
89,
109; and influenza pandemic,
176n33; mentioned,
10,
33; mortality rate reports,
43,
46,
60,
65,
70,
155; school health concerns,
116,
117,
118,
136Notification of Births Act (1907),
96Notification of Births (Extension) Act (1915),
164–65
nutrition. See diet and nutrition
Onslow, G.T., 106
parental neglect discourse, 32, 45, 46, 54, 77, 79, 89, 90, 103, 151, 161
Parsons, H. Franklin,
126pathogens, bacterial and parasitic,
62–64
Pereira, Jonathan,
Treatise on Food and Diet,
129physical fitness: and degeneration rhetoric,
1–3,
4,
102–3; and military medical examinations,
99–100,
156–62; national fitness rhetoric, children at center of,
105–11,
113,
156,
161–62,
165–66.
See also diet and nutrition; hygiene; school physical education
pollution: air,
1,
5,
27,
30,
31,
32,
102,
108,
133; water,
30population density: as factor in diarrheal mortality,
53–54; overcrowding,
28–29,
35,
36; statistics,
42Priestley, William O.,
77Public Health Act (1848),
16–17,
36Public Health Act (1871),
18Public Health Act (1872),
18,
47Public Health Act (1875),
18–19,
32,
116rainfall, 30, 53, 58, 60
Report of the Inter-departmental Committee on Physical Deterioration (1904),
107–11,
113,
125 Report on the Physical Examination of Men of Military Age (1917–18),
158–62
respiratory illness,
5,
6,
12–13,
25,
30Royal Sanitary Institute,
90–91
Sanitary Act (1866), 32
sanitary inspections: diarrheal mortality concerns,
68,
69; legislation on,
18–19,
47–48; at student homes,
116,
118.
See also health visitors
sanitary reforms: central-local oversight dynamics,
16–18; housing conditions,
30,
31,
36,
37,
40,
41–42,
108; waste removal,
30,
31–32,
42,
67–69,
70–71
School Board Children’s Free Dinner Association,
123school clinics,
141–42,
144–45
school closures, in response to outbreaks,
117,
118–19
school meals: criteria for eligibility,
125,
128–29; expansion of programs,
127–28; funding for,
123–26,
175; imperative for,
120–23; legislation on,
126–27; and root causes of malnutrition,
131–32; scientific standards for,
129–30
School Medical Officers: dietary supervision,
122,
124,
128,
131,
132; and establishment of School Medical Service,
114,
139–40; inspection approaches,
137–41,
143,
144; and Inter-departmental Committee on Physical Deterioration,
110–11; partnership with health visitors,
132,
154,
155; partnership with Medical Officers of Health,
115,
117–19,
132,
146; public health impacts of,
145–47; responsibilities of, overview,
114–15; treatment approaches,
141–45
School Medical Service: establishment of,
114,
139–40; in interwar period,
175; and Ministry of Health,
171,
172–73; mission,
145; wartime service,
153.
See also School Medical Officers
school physical education: curriculum for,
135–37; funding for,
134–35; imperative for,
104,
110,
133–34
Second Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902),
99–10
sewage system. See waste removal
sickness. See infectious diseases
Society of Medical Officers of Health,
170socio-economic divisions. See class divisions
soldiers. See military service
Stansfield, T.E. Knowles,
162state intervention: and centralization of public health,
15–18; Inter-departmental Committee reports,
106–11,
113,
125,
126; maternal and child welfare,
167–69,
172–73; Ministry of Health,
170–75; notification of births,
96,
164–65; school meals,
124–25,
126–27,
164; school medical services,
139–40; school physical education,
134–35.
See also municipal intervention
St. Pancras School for Mothers,
81–82
sugar, houseflies attracted to,
63,
64,
65summer diarrhea: awareness campaigns,
166; contributing factors, climatic conditions,
53,
55–61,
64; contributing factors, houseflies,
62–66; description,
50–51; epidemiological explanations, overview,
53–55; and health visits,
84,
89,
91,
95; mortality rates,
51,
52,
57,
59,
61,
68,
70,
91,
95; sanitary reform initiatives,
67–72
Swedish Drill System,
135–36
Tatham, John, 33, 45–46, 60, 86, 106
temperature, as factor in diarrheal mortality,
53,
55–61,
64Tennant, Harold John,
139urban penalty: as concept, 5–6; exemplars of, 30–31
ventilation: inadequate, 4, 12, 29, 54, 68, 70, 102, 108, 133; reforms efforts, 31, 68, 69. See also air
Walrond, R., 126
waste removal: inadequate,
30,
33,
40–41,
63,
64,
68; reform efforts,
30,
31–32,
42,
67–69,
70–71; water-borne sewage systems,
30,
42,
58–59n32,
71White, Arnold,
Efficiency and Empire,
101women. See health visitors; mothers
Women’s Imperial Health Association,
166World War I. See First World War
X-rays, 143