Discussion and conclusion
The grand final ceremonial element of ARP is probably the least useful or transformational for the participating girls, though many NGOs and agencies regard that, and the public declarations they usually include, as the most important aspect (e.g. Matanda
et al. 2022:40).
1 This report barely mentions ARP, and then only its public ceremonial aspects. These ceremonies do not feature Kratz’s indicators of transformation, or demonstrate what she calls ritual efficacy. They are not ‘rites’ at all, which should involve elevation to another level of personhood for girls and mothers, as Leakey recognised nearly 100 years ago when he wrote ‘initiation by the new method should give equal status socially’, i.e. equal gender status (1931:285). If their most valued element, from an NGO/agency point of view, is the public pledges to abandon FGM/C, these are functionally different. Again, they do not constitute rites, neither is there any hard evidence that they reduce FGM/C prevalence.
It may be advisable to do away with these hugely expensive ceremonies altogether, and focus on developing private, cut-free rites within the family that retain elements of genuinely traditional ritual. These would shift the focus away from the NGO to the girl, her family, and community. There is increasing evidence that families and communities are making incremental changes anyway, without external intervention, and this should be acknowledged and welcomed. There was already a trend in some communities toward FGM/C becoming ‘less public and more of a family affair’ (Chege, Askew and Liku 2001:44), and that may have increased in the years since this study. Furthermore, current thinking favours gender transformative approaches. Otherwise, by retaining all other aspects of culture apart from the cut, and keeping traditional teachings that emphasise retrogressive gender roles (such as being submissive wives), ARP can hinder positive behavioural change in relation to gender norms.
Rich ethnographies like Kratz’s account of Okiek initiation remain important, even though these practices no longer take place (at least, not in public). They describe what kinds of ritual have resonance, emotional power, and real meaning for the communities concerned. It is vital to ask why and how culture is being mimicked, and what the purpose of this mimicry is, since the efficacy of ARP has not yet been proved, and the interrelationship of its component parts, and how they work together (if indeed they do), is not fully understood either. Until the component parts of ARP are better understood, and it is shown to produce long-term results, it is unwise to say it is ‘crucial to have it replicated and evaluated in other contexts’ (Esho et al. 2017:16).